Tracing The Development Of Indian English Writing English Literature Essay

Tracing The Development Of Indian English Writing English Literature Essay Indian writing in English is primarily a result of the English colonial rule in India spanning almost two centuries. There is an undeniable relation between the literary work and the historical background out of which it arises. In spite of the western imperialism and colonialism the Indian culture has grown incredibly over the past two hundred years. It is a well known fact that the Englishmen came to India on the pretext of trade and immediately realized that a stable political control would substantially increase their profits. The Industrial Revolution in England could only sustain itself through the capital made in the Indian territories in the form of revenue collection. They then commenced to annex different territories in and around India and set up a colonial empire. The British rule completely ruined the agricultural self-sufficiency of the farmers and the trade of silk cloth saw a downslide due to the English factory produced cloth more easily and cheaply available. The we avers and artisans lost their job and had to sustain themselves by working in cotton plantations. The old existing order underwent a complete and systematic destruction and overhaul bringing misery, poverty and death to millions of Indians. After a few years of colonial rule and consolidation, the English empire got embroiled in a hotly debated and discussed issue of introduction of the English language in educational institutes. In a watershed decision English was introduced in the Indian education system, and was understood to be a different epistemological template in which not only the language but lifestyle and culture was imposed. Many reformers especially Raja Rammohun Roy, the founder of the Brahmo Samaj, vociferously supported the teaching of the move to bring about economic reforms that would provide new employment opportunities in the administration that required the knowledge of the English language. A systematic enterprise detailed by Macaulay, a member of colonial Indian parliament, than began in which mimic men were produced through the education system in India, who were a class who may be interpreters between us and the millions who we govern; a class of persons, Indian in blood and colour, but English in taste, in opinions, in morals and in intellect.  [1]  The old methods of teaching were made redundant and died a slow death as the earlier system of education was insufficient to cope with the changing social, economic and political circumstances. As it is apparent with scorn and despise towards Indian languages, the sole purpose regarding English was to strengthen their rule and brainwash the colonized; and not to empower or produce scholars. Moreover, the colonizers only had contempt and disdain for the established languages, knowledge, beliefs, religion and educational institutes, labeling them as being irrational, pagan, barbaric, unscientific and immoral. Macaulay articulated the sense of superiority that the westerners felt regarding their culture and knowledge by making a very derogatory and biased statement that a single shelf of a good European library was worth the whole native literature India and Arabia.  [2]  He believed that an educated minority would gradually educate the others, this concept came to be known as the filtration effect but it remained flawed and unsuccessful. With the introduction of the English language the missionaries got a better hold on the country and political the empire established the notions that it is a benevolent authority and has now taken the responsibility of bringing light in the form of knowledge to the ignorant population. As a result of English education a few writers an d poets converted to Christianity and imitated a style of writing prose and poetry like the English Romantics and classics. The first phase of Indian English literature roughly comprises the half century before the Great Revolt of 1857. This was a period when English education and Western ideas had begun to act as a great liberating force in a country which had been suffering from political instability for about a century. Henry Derozios Poems written in 1827, reflect his reformist idealism and iconoclastic zeal and he along with a few other visionary writers, poets and artistes worked for the eradication of social evils and called themselves the young Bengal. In fact his contemporaries like Michael Madhusudan Dutt had great technical competence and wrote a long poem on the Christian theme of the original sin, Visions of the Past (1849). Krishna Mohan Banerjeas play The Persecuted (1831) showcased the religious orthodoxies plaguing the Hindu society. The colonizers were initially largely successful in creating a class of interpreters between them and the masses. Education as a tool in the hands of the English proved to a great ideological weapon to legitimize their authority in the colonies. Evidently a hierarchy is created in which the western education model encompasses wisdom and knowledge as against the colonized people who are imbeciles. The education introduced was naturally lopsided and it not only valorized English traditions and way of life, it also provided the newly urban English educated a very limited and constricted space for liberal thought. The Indians began to believe that the colonizers had a moral responsibility to fulfill as the country was depicted to be infected by depravity, bestiality and religious bigotry. The evangelists propagated Christianity in schools indirectly by teaching biblical scriptures rather than English grammar. The weaving together of morality with a specifically English literature had imp ortant ideological consequences  [3]  , which would mean that English behaviour leads to a moral behaviour and ultimately the colonizing country ostensibly projected itself as being a guiding light to civilize the colonies. Though the English always had their propaganda and selfish intention intact, a positive consequence was that the Indians had mastered the colonisers language [à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦] and further, had by the 1820s begun to adopt it as their chosen medium of expression. These pioneering works of poetry, fiction, drama, travel, and belles-lettres are little read today except by specialists, but when they were published they were, by the mere fact of being in English, audacious acts of mimicry and self-assertion. More than this, the themes they touched on and the kinds of social issues they engaged with would only be explored by other Indian literatures several decades later.  [4]   The middle class Indian intelligentsia created by the English for their convenience was never considered as an equal by the colonizers as they were inherently racists. The British defined themselves as the efficient, ethical, hardworking, courageous and masculine rulers of India, they came to characterize Indians increasingly as slothful, deceitful and immoral.  [5]  The English deemed Indians unfit for self-governance and never gave them any important positions in the administration. The partition of Bengal in 1905 falsely done in the name of administrative convenience broke the powerful intelligentsia that had formed in Bengal. The Swadeshi movement that followed brought in a lot of cultural changes and a revival of old Indian traditions of celebration of festivals, theatres and folk songs focusing on national pride and patriotism. The entry of Indian English writing in the English canon is often debated as some of the critics are of the opinion that this genre got an acceptance only in the late 1950s when the Indian writers decided to establish it as a discipline, while others regard the works initially written by Indians in the English language as the real formation of this literary genre. The first novel by an Indian in English Bankim Chandra Chatterjees Rajmohans Wife appeared quite late in 1864 and is his only novel in English, the rest fourteen successful novels he wrote in Bengali. Kylas Chunder Dutts A Journal of Forty-Eight Hours of the Year 1945 (1835) preceding Bankims novel is about an imaginary armed uprising against the British but cannot be classified as the first novel as it came out in a journal. Mehrotra elucidates on Kylas Chunder Dutts work that: Insurrections seems a commonplace idea, until we realise that the idea is being expressed for the first time in Indian literature, and would next find expression only in folk songs inspired by the events of 1857. It is uncanny that the year of the uprising in Dutts imagination comes within two years of Indias actual year of independence; uncanny, too, the coincidence that the work should have been published in the same year that Macaulay delivered his Minute. In a double irony, the insurgents are all urbanized middle-class Indians with the best education colonialism could offer, the very class Macaulay had intended as interpreters between us and the millions whom we govern. Thus, the language of command is stood on its head and turned into the language of subversion, suggests itself as the imaginative beginnings of a nation.  [6]  The revolt of 1857 was a turning point and India became an empire under the British rule, represented by the viceroy. The revolt saw a unification of the warring Indian states against a common enemy. The heroism, valour and courage demonstrated by Indians inspired a lot of folk songs, poems and literature detailing the battle and brutality with which it was suppressed. The possibility of toppling the British rule looked viable but it took a century for Indians to attain independence. The British formulated numerous rules and regulations to stipulate the authority of Indian princely states and other autonomous bodies and gained complete control over India. Censorship of literature increased many folds as the colonizers strictly monitored any writing that was seditious to the British policies, government or laws. Political t hemes were now discussed through literature in the guise of historical novels or romances which glorified the past rulers. Ironically Shakespeares poetry rings true when placed in the context of Indian English writing, in his play The Tempestà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦..says You taught me language and my profit in it / Is I know how to curse.  [7]   Meenakshi Mukherjee in her detailed and informative essay Beginning of the Novel  [8]  traces the rise of the early English novel in India that was primarily aimed at an English audience and usually began with titles that would pull the attention of the English towards the orients as unlike novelists in the Indian languages who were confident about a sizeable readership within their specific region, the writer in English suffered from uncertainty about his audience. The earlier tracts written by Kylas Chunder Dutt, Shoshee Chunder Dutt among others did not strictly adhere to the demands of novelistic traditions. The later novels written in the century were more obsequious and tolerant of the British rule and many writers wrote praising the empire and paid homage to the Queen through their writings. The only woman writer who wrote in English during that period has now become an obscure figure. Women in that era were not encouraged to get any education and were scarcely taught the English language. Krupabai Satthianadhans Kamala, A Story of Hindu Life (1894) and Saguna, A Story of Native Christian life (1895) detail topical issues concerning gender, caste, religion and other social issues. To the critic Mennakshi Mukherjee the greatest achievement of the canonical Indian English writing is not the awards or critical acclaim won by the writers now, rather the breaking free from The tentativeness of nineteenth century novelists, not only about writing in an acquired colonial language but also about their readership, has been replaced by an overwhelming confidence among post colonial writers that the English language belongs to them as much as to anyone else. The novels of the nineteenth century brought to limelight the social injustices, superstition and the abominable conditions of the peasants and workers that plagued the Indian society. Womens emancipation, education and widow remarriage also became common themes in the novels and this phase is dubbed as the renaissance of Indian writing in English.  [9]  The tradition of novel writing in India is an imitation of a western phenomenon and thus different from most of the earlier writings that engaged in a quest of metaphysical and transcendental knowledge, where the present world is depicted and painted to be a mere appearance. Another luminary figure is that of Tagore who wrote an expansive body of prose fiction, poetry, and songs. His creative ingenuity is unparalleled in either Bengali or English. He conceptualized and started a democratic, artistic and cultural revolution by training young minds in the university founded by him, Shantiniketan, which attracted teachers and studen ts from all over the world. Tagores Gitanjali (1912) is a great lyrical achievement and his prose fiction deals with human condition and emotions, societal norms and also revolution. His works inspired an entire generation of writers, artists, singers, and the common man. Most of his work is in Bengali and is present to us in translation. Besides, the dangerous of considering English Indian writing as national literature especially in western universities is manifold, primarily because it is written by a minority that is upwardly mobile. Text written in English language should not be the only source of highlighting Indian culture and way of life; this would marginalize the importance of the texts produced in regional languages that have their own values and narratives. The accommodation of Indian writing in English in the English canon is a momentous achievement because it provides autonomy to this genre as it is not merged with Commonwealth writing or is merely labeled as an imitation. The polemics of criticism in earlier days refused to accept it as an area of academic scrutiny as it did not proliferate to the degree it has now. Indian writing in English belongs to a particular class of people who are of Indian origin and have learnt the language well to be writers of that language, and those who are able to read the English language and are to an extent more proficient and comfortable in English than in their mother tongues. These conditioning does not makes them less of a writer rather they are experts in explicating the thoughts and lives of Indian characters living in India but not speaking, thinking or living an English life. It requires great talent, insight and exceptional grasp of bilingualism to express in English the lives of people who do not speak that language. Thus we have Raja Rao in his foreword  [10]  to the novel Kanthapura debating: English is not really an alien language to us. It is the language of our intellectual make-up like Sanskrit or Persian was before but not of our emotional make-up. We are all instinctively bilingual, many of us in our own language and in English. We cannot write like the English. We should not. We can only write as Indians. We have grown to look at the large world as a part of us. Our method of expression therefore has to be a dialect which will some day prove to be as distinctive and colourful as the Irish or the American. Time alone will justify it. One of the major reasons for the proliferation of Indian writing in English is the Indians assertion of autonomy in writing their own histories. Bamkinchandras call We have no History! We must have a History! highlights the need for self representation and expression. The mere act of writing and narrating ones past hints at an inherent power struggle because the mode of recalling the past relies on who has the authority to re-create and re-tell the past. The colonizers perspective would naturally differ from that of the colonized. James Mills History of British India (1817) is only one sided and prejudiced attempt at detailing Indias past. To wrench authority and power from the colonizers one has to narrate ones own stories. Thus, the primary novels written by Indians seemed to be historical fiction which went on to be read and gradually merged with the aspirations of budding nationalist struggle. Likewise, the theme in earlier novel was nation and nationalism and it was developed as historical romances depicting the life of a historical figure in a romantic alliance that showcased the glorious past of the Indian nation, for instance, T. Ramakrishna Pillais Padmini: An Indian Romance (1903). By 1930, Indian English literature became a century old yet failed to produce a single novelist who had a plethora of work to his credit. Then three novelists known as the Big Three wrote and published their works that proved to be an epoch making enterprise. Raja Rao, Mulk Raj Anand and N.K.Narayan revolutionized Indian novel writing on an unprecedented scale and brought to fore not only the views and idealism of Gandhiji but also provided a poignant, realistic picture of fellow Indians under the colonial rule suffering acute poverty, social discrimination, unemployment and illiteracy. Further, Raja Raos Kanthapura (1938); Mulk Raj Anands The Sword and the Sickle (1942) and R.K.Narayans W aiting for the Mahatma (1955) deal with nationalism and impact of Gandhism in lives of Indians. Regarding the works of Narayan both western and Indian scholars opine that his novels are deeply traditional, apolitical and humanist, yet at the same time his work is highly representatively Indian in their spirituality. His theme and form has enabled him to explore the minutiae and subtleties of human emotions and feelings and to his ironic vision towards human life is aptly universal. Although, the importance of Hinduism in Narayans work is identified by many, a number of his novels probe the limitations and contradictions inherent in Hindu worldview and identity. In Meenakshi Mukherjees assessment R.K.Narayan falls in that category of novelists who do not indulge in any generalizations about what is Indian and what is western. Their characters are a curious blend of the East and the West which all Indians are but they refuse to sift the elements.  [11]  Natural to the writer of po st independence, Kamala Markandayas novels focus on the changing socio-economic scene. Her preoccupation with the theme of hunger in Nectar in a Sieve (1955) and Handful of Rice (1966) and her picture of uprootedness of Indian villagers on account of the menacing growth of industrial civilization derive their vigour from Gandhis pleading for village economy. The process of modernization is satirized in her later novels like The Coffer Dams (1969) and The Pleasure City (1984). Patriotism, freedom struggles, exploitation of the factory workers and the relationship between the colonizer and the condition of the colonized formed the corpus of Indian writing in English. Gandhiji inspired and influenced the writers and poets immensely and this fact is clear in the way activism and courage was liberated from aggressiveness and violence. The tumultuous political situation of the nineteen thirties due to the civil disobedience movement under the leadership of freedom fighters created a readership that wished to explore and get information about their countrys rapacious plunder and the miserable, starving plight of its citizens. The prevailing nationalistic fervor and political situation witnessed a portrayal in the literature produced at that time. Some writers advocated the Gandhian method of non-violence to attain freedom while the others wanted independence through any means whether it involved violence or not remained immaterial to them. The partition of the s ubcontinent had a prolonged disturbing and traumatic effect on the psyche of millions of Indians and became one of the most discussed, debated and analyzed theme in numerous novels. For instance Khushwant Singhs Train to Pakistan (1956) lead to a significant contribution to the genre namely Partition literature in the canon of English Indian writing. The events portrayed in the novel revolve around the depiction of unprecedented violence, brutality and desperation. The novel captures the mindlessness of communal violence and provides a protest against the Indian bureaucracy. Salman Rushdies Midnights Children (1981) and Amitav Ghoshs The Shadow Lines (1988) deal with the theme of partition in a very different perspective. After independence, the era of hope and certitude got sidelined by an age of self scrutiny, skepticism and an attempt to deal with the ones sense of identity exposed to divergent cultures, Indian and Western. Post independence fiction reflected an anxious reality O n one hand freedom had been won; ostensibly the exploiter had been expelled and the forces of evil were no longer in the land. But on the other hand, writers and intellectuals generally felt that the only change effected by independence was the change in the colour of the exploiters skin.  [12]  Political satire and a growing disillusionment with the current state of affairs were highlighted in numerous novels by writers of different vernacular. Moreover, the theme of partition and the consecutive wars with China and Pakistan created a sense of despair in the literary arena and greatly affected the works of writers. Caste and communalism have become major issues in Indian English writing Mulk Raj Anands Untouchable is read as a remarkable and revolutionary novel by both critics and readers, and in this novel he illustrates the pitfalls of a parasitic casteist Hindu society. The concept of marginalization is a common leitmotif in the novels depicting lower caste people and women. Meenakshi Mukherjee says that A huge social divide exists between those have proficiency in English and those who do not. Given the fact that English today is the language not only of upward social mobility and outward geographical mobility, but also a major tool for accessing knowledge at the higher level.  [13]  One cannot remain blind to the major characteristic feature of Indian English literature, both linguistic and cultural, that its influence extends beyond the limits of any elitist paradigm. Along with marginality a sense of alienation is an underlining concern in numerous novels. Anita Desais Cry, the Peaco ck (1963) focuses on the female sensibility at odds with the male dominated society. Her later novels like Fire on the Mountain (1977) describe the isolation and alienation of man from family and society. Upamanyu Chatterjees English August dissects and beautifully expresses the estrangement felt by the characters in the novels. Iyengars pioneering work in the creation of a history of Indian writing in English opened up new avenues of criticism and these studies have done much to establish the parameters of a discussion of the nature and role of Indian writing in English including its form, its audience and its effectiveness.  [14]  The readership and production of numerous writings both in quality and quantity in vernacular languages in India is by far larger than the English counterpart. One has to assess the readership of Indian English writing which is at best nominal in India, the target thus, seem to be the widely English speaking western world. A few popular novels by Kipling, Kim and The Jungle book became extremely popular but the perspective remained of the white man. E.M.Forsters A Passage to India provides an imperial writers ambivalent attitude towards the other, non- Eurocentric culture and the distrust is palpable. One can argue that the earlier writers of English did write to a Christian western world, explaining almost apologetically Indias pluralism and trying to fit in the constraints demanded by English literature and are accused of exoticisng India to the foreign readers. The readership issue of Indian English literature has assumed dimensions more varied than just simple publishing politics. Even now the debate continues and those who choose to write in English argue that English is also an Indian language and they know this language the best. They are accused by those writing in vernacular of not being in touch with the masses and aiming only for self aggrandizement. Interestingly, a new generation of writers has slowly emerged that does not feel the need to provide a glossary for Indian vernacular terms or the Indian way of life. Desai reiterates the fact that a new generation of Indian writes, addressing Indian subjects and items in a language taken from Indian streets newspapers, jou rnals, and films, and a class of enterprising business who decided they were worth publishing marked the 80s and 90s.  [15]   Now a new emergent prototype of writers known as being the diasporic writers have established themselves. Due to colonialism a lot of people from England settled in different parts of the world and a lot of people belonging to numerous places from each and every corner of the word made Britain and other colonizing countries their home; some of them came as indentured labours or as slaves. Britain and other colonizing countries witnessed a spurt in immigration as they needed labourers to work in their factories or healthcare systems, besides many people came looking for better employment opportunities, income and for studies. Therefore, Diaspora can be defined by emphasizing a sense of collective community that one feels while living in one country and looking across time and space for another. It should be noted that the generation born to the migrants who are now settled in another country, might not have the same emotional and sentimental attachment to the old country. Also the jou rney from ones old country to the adopted country creates a sense of shared history and the difference in language, generation, religion and culture make diaspora spaces dynamic and shifting, open to repeated construction and reconstruction.  [16]  The reason for the inception of diasporic writer can be explained as the massive migrations that have defined this century- from the late colonial period through the decolonization era into the twenty first century.  [17]   Naipauls work on Trinidad did not find readership in America because the critics found it stylistically too British. In England Naipaul was rejected because he was too foreign. In more recent times, however, the conference of the Nobel Prize on Naipaul celebrates the acceptance of the author outside Trinidad. For that matter, R.K.Narayans first novel, Swami and Friends, portraying life in a small south Indian village, enjoyed considerable readership in England when first published in 1935. Ruskin Bonds semi-autobiographical reminiscences of living in and out of Dehra Dun bazaar among Indian urchins appeared in a book form The Room on the Roof (1952), it was crowned the prestigious John Lellwyn Rhys Memorial Prize. Bond made India his permanent home unlike other Anglo-Indians who chose to return back. The recognition awarded to the books coming from different places and elucidating the diverse upheaval, lifestyle and attitude towards life we can assess the fact that readership patter n of foreign literature has seen a tremendous change due to the growing socio-cultural influences of globalization. The linguistic effects of Ruskin Bonds minimalist approach or Raja Raos attempts at making English seem to be natural easily acceptable are positive in the sense that they have gained wider popularity outside the realm of colonial modernity. A common thread binds the variant diasporic writers together they are marked by their hybridity and heterogeneity cultural, linguistic, ethnic, national and these subjects are defined by a traversal of boundaries demarcating nations and diaspora.  [18]  A diasporic writers constant struggle with the past that stressed on ones ancestry and valued the pure over the hybrid or the composite is a highly discussed concept in postcolonial literature.  [19]  These writers have transformed the meaning and dimension of Indian writing in English and have made it more dynamic, accommodating and expansive. Indian writers, like Rushdie and Naipaul, Anita Desai, Shashi Tharoor, Amitav Ghosh, Vikram Seth et al have carved a niche for themselves while residing abroad and writing about the sense of rootlessness and displacement that is experienced because of geographical causes and the problems faced by those who are immigrants, refugees or exiled. Their identity is neither lost nor submerge d by overlapping of multiplicity and diversity. The Indian diasporic writer born and brought up in a post-colonial world [à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦] have had no reason to feel self-conscious in handling the English language, which carries no colonial baggage for them.  [20]  Most of these writers write about Indian subcontinent and present the vastness, pluralism and celebration of multiculturalism that is now associated with India. Rushdies incisive comment on the migrant sensibility is one of the central themes of the displaced personà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ the effect à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦has been the creation of new types of human beingà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ people in whose deepest selves strange fusion occur, unprecedented unions between what they were and where they find themselves à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦migrants must of necessity make a new imaginative relation with the world.  [21]   The psycho-social predicaments of the self under colonialism and its dispensation of a new worldview bridging the east-west divide after independence are investigated. Amitav Ghosh problematizes and delineates a sense of rootlessness in the character of Ila in The Shadow Lines. Her father is a diplomat and she has been brought up in western countries. As a result, she is reduced to th

Kraft and Cadbury Merger Essay

What is the role of the government in this merger? What is the impact on the shareholders, what are their thoughts about it and is it a successful merger or not. Other than Kraft and Cadbury four aspects of doing business internationally has been discussed and their influence in an international business career. 1. 1 How and why Kraft identified Cadbury as a potential partner? On 19th January 2010 Kraft the American Giant, acquired Cadbury the most popular and one of the most selling brand in chocolates for $11. 5bn. The reason for Kraft to identify Cadbury as its potential partner and even after Cadbury rejected its first bid on 7th September 2009, and then came up with a higher bid, was that Kraft wanted to bring in the most loved British Chocolates to USA, because the chocolates that America produces are only loved by American’s and are not so loved around the world, while they targeted the British company because they make better chocolates plus they wanted to get into the British market and to get into the British market remaining into the food industry they could not identify a better option than acquiring Cadbury by merging these two companies one they capture the British market of dairy food plus they introduce their products into Britain and the Cadbury products into USA having the plus points of both cultures. Expected benefits Kraft is the second largest Food beverage company in the world, which produced revenue of 49. billion USD in the year 2010 (Kraftfoodscompany, (2011) and is operating in more than 150 counties worldwide and has an Employee number of around 100,000. Where as Cadbury on the other hand is the second largest Confectionary Company in the world, which produced revenue of 5. 38 billion USD in the year 2008 (Cadbury annual report, 2008) and has a very strong hold in Asia Pacific and Latin America and has an Employee number of around 70,000. When these two giants combine, one American Giant and other British Giant, they both can conquer the food industry if they both are managed well. In 2010 Kraft already made revenue increase of 0. 7 billion USD from 2008 to 2010 after the take over of Cadbury (CNN, 2011). Kraft and Cadbury can both work very well and can avail a lot of benefits from each other provided that both them work together, because Kraft has its own management too large in scale and Cadbury as well. 1. 3 Synergies for both companies involved? After the merger of Kraft and Cadbury, both companies are expected to have revenue synergies and have an increase of the net revenue of up to 5% or more. They are targeting the long-term output for it. Which as a result will increase the net revenue. The combined company (Kraft and Cadbury) is targeting to increase their per share cost in 2011 of approximately $0. 05 and on the basis of cash. These two companies combined can make a lot of revenue. Parliament publication, 2012) Other than that Cadbury has other channels of gaining revenue like gas filling stations, corner shops which are well being forced by Cadbury and on the other hand Kraft has a strong hold on supermarkets and groceries. As they are merged now the overall distribution will be higher for Kraft and Cadbury and their revenue will increase. Both of the companies has opposite markets that they have captured for Cadbury they have a large influence in Asia, Africa, Mexico and Turkey and for Kraft they have more influence in Brazil and China. By combining together they both can capture almost every market around the globe. The total value of the British chocolate confectionery sector amounts to approximately EUR 3. 9 billion. In the UK, the parties’ activities overlap only in the markets of tablets and pralines. Kraft is active in tablets and pralines mainly with its brands Milka, Toblerone and Terry’s chocolate Orange, and Cadbury with its brands Dairy Milk, Roses and Green & Black. (http://ec. europa. eu/competition/mergers/cases/decisions/m5644_20100106_20212_en. pdf page 9 ) (Kraft Foods Official 2011 Report) 1. 4 The risks associated with the choice of acquisition as an approach to this particular ‘partnership’ The first and last risk which is associated with this particular partnership is of keeping their word. The official position of the Fairtrade Foundation is the following: â€Å"The Fairtrade Foundation is very proud of our relationship with Cadbury, and what we have achieved together, including the conversion of Cadbury Dairy Milk to Fairtrade in the UK and Ireland in 2009, now being extended to three other international markets – Canada, Australia and New Zealand. This has had a tremendously positive public response, and is delivering major benefits to cocoa farmers in Ghana, quadrupling the amount they are able to sell on Fairtrade terms in 2010, compared to 2008. The Fairtrade Foundation and Cadbury have a shared vision for the future, and there are contractual commitments in place, which will form part of any intellectual property transfer between Cadbury and Kraft in any takeover. We believe that the progress we have made together in strengthening cocoa farmers to deliver long term sustainability of the cocoa supply chain, along with a fast growing level of consumer demand for Fairtrade products, not just in the UK but globally, present a unique and compelling case for continuing to pursue the Cadbury commitment to their Cocoa Partnership and to Fairtrade, and taking it even further in coming months and years. † Treehugger, 2012) According to the Official Statement, they will perform Fairtrade for both the companies and Kraft confirmed that it would uphold Cadbury’s commitments to Fairtrade which were that: †¢ Dairy Milk will continue to be Fairtrade in the UK and Northern Ireland and in three more markets, Canada, Australia and New Zealand by early 2010; †¢ Green & Black’s (which is owned by Cadbury) will move its entire range to Fairtrade by the end of 2011. (http://www. publications. parliament. uk/pa/cm200910/cmselect/cmbis/234/234. df ) But no one is quiet happy with the outcome of the merger. Because Kraft did not really act upon what they stated to do before the merger, expression of the former first Minister of Scotland Jack McConnell asked Kraft in the Scottish Parliament to Honour the Fairtrade Part of the deal, he said â€Å"There have been concerns expressed for many years that Kraft has never shown any enthusiasm for fair trade and therefore this must be under threat as a result of the takeover. † (Treehugger, 2012). Warren Buffett isn’t too keen now either. Discussing the CEO of Kraft, he said â€Å"She thinks this is a good deal, I think it’s a bad deal. † Mind you, he is probably not worrying about the fairtrade aspect. Cadbury’s 6,000 UK workers are also worried, because it is a hi risk for the workers to now work at Cadbury under the American Management which has already influenced the Cadbury management. 1. 5 Feasible alternative? The most feasible alternative to Kraft for Cadbury was Hershey Chocolates, which is also an American Chocolate brand. In 2009 before the hostile takeover of Cadbury by Kraft, Cadbury talked to Hershey personal to include themselves in the bid so they can recommend Hershey over Kraft to its shareholders and are taken over by Hershey, but unfortunately Hershey did not want to be the part of the bidding war over Cadbury with Kraft because Hershey is its self weighing up. Even for Kraft Hershey was a good alternative over Cadbury because both are American Companies and would understand eachother easily rather than taking over a company is a completely different region, Ferrero maker of Rocher chocolate and Nutella is also a very good alternative for Cadbury but at the time of bid according to Trevor Datson the spokesperson for Cadbury said the company had no comment. No one at Ferrero was immediately available for comment. Involvement of National and corporate cultures Neither is the Nation nor the Corporate section is happy with the merger of the both companies, because for public there is a fear of cutting off more than 6000 jobs is Britian and more than 46,000 globally so people working at Cadbury are really afraid to work at it and other than employees the Corporate personal are also in fear of that the world leading brands like Dairy Milk, Flake and Wipsa are at risk with this merger and the shareholder are also not very happy with the $11. 5 bn deal. Critical Evaluation of both the companies about this Partnership Both of the companies had their own management and their own way of doing business around the world. As Kraft is majorly dairy products maker and is being loved by that around the world. Where as Cadbury is also a very well known name in the chocolate industry, because a lot of people in United Kingdom and at other major parts of the world such as Asia and Africa Cadbury is really loved for chocolate. As through the analysis this is a very hostile takeover i. e. , between Kraft and Cadbury, after taking over Cadbury Kraft accepted some of the points that they will do and keep is at it is and after that takeover they did not manage to fulfill those commitments which lead to misunderstanding between these two companies after their merger. As Kraft agreed that they will stick to Faretrade organization and to keep the same cocoa supplier as Cadbury had before and before the merger Cadbury was to close one of their plants but after merger Kraft did not do so and now they are facing these problems which are not very good in the long run for both of the companies. Involvement Of the Government In this hostile takeover not just the employees and shareholders but also the government, had and also has issues with this mergers. With the merger of Kraft Foods and Cadbury a number of important issues have bin highlighted in the way through which the foreign takeovers of UK companies are conducted.

The Effects of Economic Globalization on Cultures Around the World

This paper attempts to explain the possible effects of economic globalization on cultures around the world. It concludes that there is a possibility for American culture to be spread all over the world, and become the dominant culture of the globe. In doing so there is a possibility for the loss of culture in all nations and it being replaced with American culture. This paper also discusses the potential loss of national identity among nations, and especially among smaller, lesser known, and developing countries. It also discusses possible causes for this phenomenon as well as possible solutions. Although economic globalization is often thought of as an over-hyped fad of the 1990s (Naim, 2004) it has already begun on a large scale, and the consequences of which can be seen around the world. Economic Globalization can be defined in this case as the expansion of global financial markets, the growth of multi-national organizations, and the standardization of economies on a global scale (Tavin, & Hausman, 2004). This type of globalization has a profound effect on cultures around the world. Culture can be defined as the shared ideals, values, and beliefs that people use to interpret experience and generate behavior, and that are reflected by their behavior. In this case, the effect economic globalization has on the artistic facet of culture will be the focal point. As the phenomenon of economic globalization progresses it will become easier for corporations to become multi-national. The first corporations that are able to succeed in doing this will create monopolies or oligopolies in their respective markets, making it extremely difficult or impossible for smaller corporations to compete, thus driving them out of the market. With fewer companies leading the marketplace, there will be a smaller range of different products to choose from. If these corporations’ good or service is art, this will have a profound effect on culture. Varied art forms will decrease, and of the art forms that survive they will be homogenous around the world. This has already started. Because the United States is the sole remaining global superpower, it is almost always American corporations that have the means for their corporations to spread. In doing so they spread almost exclusively American culture. Thus the more homogenous culture becomes around the world, the more it will become like that of America. This phenomenon is often referred to as Americanization. Economic globalization has and continues to create a culturally homogenous world based on American culture, which has negative consequences to both foreign nations, as well as North America. Economic Globalization has already been implemented on a large scale. In the same way the introduction of the telegraph, and the steam engine was hailed for shrinking the world, the advent of the Internet and the jet engine have done so in a colossal way (Naim, 2004). These inventions have not only allowed economies to communicate and visit each other more rapidly than ever before, but they have allowed for the rapid movement of capital, information, and labour. Companies such as McDonalds, Starbucks, and Guinness Beer have expanded their markets to almost every country in the globe, and have maintained their stringent policies of quality control. So much so, that it is said to be difficult to tell the difference between a Guinness draft straight from the St. James Brewery in Dublin, Ireland, and one brewed and bought in North America. The movement of labour has also been rapidly increasing. Automotive companies such as Volkswagen have moved almost all production to their plants in Mexico from where they were originally built, in Wolfsburg, Germany. Goods also move much more freely between countries now due to advances in technology and transportation, but also due to the removal of international tariffs between countries. The North American Free Trade Agreement, for instance, has decreased, and in some cases completely removed the tariffs between Canada, the United States, and Mexico (Stiglitz, 2004). With the free movement of labour, capital, information, and goods comes a growing interdependence between nations. In the case of Volkswagen for instance the hundreds of employees working in the VW plants in Mexico are almost entirely dependant on the German economy. If Volkswagen were to for some reason go bankrupt, all of these employees would then lose their jobs. This interdependence among nations can lead to a complete loss of national identity, an extremely important part of a nation’s culture (Dougherty, 2004). As corporations expand their hold on the global markets experiences in almost every nation become standardized. Especially when it comes to the varied art forms around the world. Huge American corporations export American culture that in turn crushes developing culture in smaller countries. This is most definitely the case in the music as well as film industries. The four largest record companies account for nearly 80 percent of the industry, and are largely U. S. owned (Van Elteren, 2004). These music giants are Universal Music, BMG & SONY Music, EMI, and Warner Music. Because these four companies own such a large part of the market share, it is almost impossible to for local and regional music forms to compete and sustain themselves, mainly because they have no means of distribution. Also, because these companies are largely U. S. owned, and their largest market is the United States, they spend more time promoting and exporting American music than any other. On April 27th 2005 The Australian and U. S. top 40 shared 25. 7% of the same singles, and 6 out of the Australian top 10 were also listed on the American top 40 (Top 40 Charts, 2005). Even more shocking is that over 60% of the artists on the Australian top 40 were from North America. Of the Australian top 40, 3 listings were most notably significant in regard to the spread of North American Culture. Firstly at number 16, was Kelly Clarkson, the winner of a completely American competition, American Idol. Secondly, at number 17 was Simple Plan, a band from Montreal, Quebec. This is a practical example of how this trend has indeed reached home. Finally, at number 27 was Avril Lavigne. This is significant as it clearly illustrates just how successful the phenomenon of globalization has become. Avril Lavigne is from a very small town in Ontario called Nappanee, which has a population of 7760 (Med Hunters, 2005). Even though she is from such a small town, with the age of globalization the world is in, it has become possible for her, through these huge multi-national music companies, to export her music to the other side of the globe. These multi-national music corporations are taking advantage of their ability to distribute their music around the world, which in turn contributes to a musically and culturally homogenous world, one of American culture. The same phenomenon that is being seen in the music industry is also being seen in the global film industry. The American film industry is by far the largest in the world, with such companies Warner Brothers and Universal leading the market. 93. 1% of all the films in the United States are made by American companies. The same can be said however for many foreign countries as well. The U. S. controls 81. 4% of the United Kingdom’s film industry, 80. 6% of Australia’s, 67. 0% of Spain’s, 65. 4% of the European Union’s as a whole, 59. % of Italy’s, and 51% of France’s (Global Policy Forum, 2005). With the American film industry controlling such a large portion of the global industry, it becomes increasingly difficult for local and regional films to sustain themselves. The reason for which is that making films requires a significant amount of money; this money is usually procured from these large motion picture companies. The difference between t he film and music industry, or any other medium for that matter is that films have an inherent ability to pass on culture more efficiently than through any other means. Films can pass on and influence such aspects of culture such as dance, art, fashion, language (such as slang), and music all at the same time. This only further encourages a homogeneity of culture. American culture continues to be spread around the world through other media as well. American television stations such as MTV and CNN are being broadcast all over the world, as are American radio stations. More recently it has become even easier for American culture to be spread, through the Internet. American television shows can be watched and downloaded from anywhere on the planet, and almost every major radio station in the U. S. now has the ability to stream their broadcasts live worldwide through the internet. One reason the spread of American culture is a problem is because of the general lack of knowledge among U. S. citizens about other countries. Without much knowledge of foreign cultures Americans truly miss out on the many positive aspects other cultures can bring to a melting pot such as the U. S. There is however more statistics about the U. S. so it is easier to make this claim only about them, but the problem is most likely stemming from Canada as well. Because it is American culture that is being spread around the world, if American culture was more knowledgeable about foreign cultures, it would be spreading a more diversified culture. One reason there is this lack of knowledge could be because American citizens don’t travel to foreign nations to experience different cultures. Eighty-three percent of U. S. citizens do not have a passport, and of those that do fifty percent of them are over the age of 60 or under the age of 5 (Goodman, 2005). If no Americans are traveling one can conclude that they either have no interest to travel, or lack the knowledge to know where to travel. American students have extremely limited contact with the outside world and are becoming increasingly isolated from the rest of the world (Goodman, 2005). Traveling or not however, the ignora nce of the American people extends further. Eighty-seven percent of adults with a college degree in the United States cannot find Iraq on a map of the world. This is a country that the U. S. is at war with, and the citizens still have no interest or clue about it. This may come from a sense of superiority. A sense that the U. S. is the only country worth knowing about because they control so much of the world’s political and economical markets. Seventy percent of American are unable to name the president of Russia, a former global superpower who was the US’s rival during the Cold War (Goodman, 2005). The same amount cannot name the position that Kofi Annan holds either (Goodman, 2005). Perhaps a sense of superiority comes from the fact that sixty percent of Americans believe that they have a fully functioning missile defense system protecting them from foreign nations, terrorists and rogue states (Goodman, 2005). Although the larger countries of the world, such as Canada, the United Kingdom, Germany, and Russia may be able to somewhat resist Americanization, this is only because they have a strong cultural background already established. The same cannot be said for all countries of the world however. For developing countries, to use a cliche, â€Å"Resistance is futile†. As American culture sweeps the globe the smaller, lesser known, and developing countries are devoured in its path. With no way for these countries to spread their culture to the rest of the world, and with the constant importation of American culture, there own national identity and culture is destroyed in the process (Dougherty, 2004). The problem lies also with politics. In smaller countries is it sometimes political-suicide to suggest not siding the United States, for fear of being shunned by the developed world, and thus perpetuating the un-developed status of their country (Worth, & Kuhling, 2004). Because of this, political leaders of these countries tend to side with U. S. on foreign policy, and only increase the effect of Americanization. Although in this age of globalization it may be impossible to stop Americanization or at least the standardization of experience around the world, one can change the type of experience, and one can change American Culture. Almost undoubtedly American culture will eventually take over as the leading force around the world. Instead of trying to stop this spread, one must consider the alternative, to change American culture. If American culture were more representative of the all the cultures around the world, the standardization of experience would cause much less of a problem, because all nations would benefit from the spreading of a variety of different cultures, and not just that of the U. S. There are a few ways in which the U. S. can accomplish this task. The U. S. must increase the education of varied international art forms within their schools. American schools must teach about foreign art and music, as well as to instruct students about global events, and current political and economic topics. Another way is for America to increase the importation of different cultures. They can achieve this through traditional media such as the television, and radio, or through non-traditional ways such as thro ugh foreign exchange students. The U. S. has more than 4,000 accredited institutions of higher learning, which accounts for about one-third of the world’s capacity (Goodman, 2005). If these institutions were to strive to bring only 100 foreign exchange students to their campuses, an immense difference would be made in the way American students view other cultures. American must also be made aware of the responsibility they have as the sole remaining global superpower. America has the opportunity, as well as responsibility, to make the world a much better place by diversifying their own culture and spreading it. In doing so they would be making the world more tolerant and understanding of other cultures, as well as spreading the positive aspects of each different culture. In this new era of globalization the potential for a loss of culture around the world is high. As the phenomenon of Americanization expands, the world stands to lose its cultural variation in regard to all art forms, such as music and film. There is also a possibility for the loss of national identity as well as the complete eradication of cultural and national identity among lesser known, smaller, and developing countries. Although the standardization of experience around the world may be impossible to avoid it is possible to counteract in some regards the negative aspects that come with this homogeneity of cultures. If the world, and especially America, becomes aware of their responsibility to spread a culture that represents those of all nations around the world, many positive things can be spread through Americanization.

World Trade Organization Agreement on Anti-Dumping Free Essay Example, 1750 words

The EU s anti-dumping measures are typically directed at low-priced goods origination from Asia. The EU has expressed a concern that EU markets will become saturated with low-priced products from Asia and its primary focus has always been China (Andersen 2006). An anti-dumping complaint lodged by China against the EU with the WTO Dispute Settlement Board in 2009 was finally resolved by the WTO s Appellate Body on 21st September 2011 (China v the EU Definitive Anti-Dumping Measures on Certain Iron or Steel Fasteners from China, WTO Dispute, DS397, 2011). The dispute lodged by China was initiated in July 2009 in which China complained that the EU s decision in January 2009 to impose a definitive anti-dumping order on Chinese exporters of Chinese fasteners were inconsistent with obligations to the WTO and the Anti-dumping agreement (China v the EU Definitive Anti-Dumping Measures on Certain Iron or Steel Fasteners from China, WTO Dispute, DS397, 2011). Two companies involved were Chin ese firms but were European subsidiaries and were not caught by the EU s anti-dumping duty order. The tariffs applicable to the duty order were between 26.5% to just below 80% and applied to all Chinese exporters of Chinese fasteners except for the two European subsidiaries (China v the EU Definitive Anti-Dumping Measures on Certain Iron or Steel Fasteners from China, WTO Dispute, DS397, 2011). The EU s duty order against Chinese exporters of Chinese fasteners was facilitated by EU Council Regulation 384/96 of 1995 which permitted protection relative to imports originating from non-EU member states. We will write a custom essay sample on World Trade Organization Agreement on Anti-Dumping or any topic specifically for you Only $17.96 $11.86/page

The Effects Of New Plants, Animals, And Technologies...

1. Explain how the introduction of new plants, animals, and technologies altered the natural (physical) environment of North America. Think Columbian Exchange. The introduction of new plants, animals and technologies had great impact on North America’s environment. For example, horses were amongst the many animals introduced, as a result, the native people were able to travel longer distances in a shorter period of time, and hunt more effectively. Other animals that were introduced include pigs, cattle, and accidentally, the black rat. Alongside the black rat came the Bubonic Plague. The Bubonic Plague was not the only disease introduced to North America by the Europeans. Some of the diseases introduced were influenza, smallpox, measles, and scarlet fever. Crops that were introduced include sugar, coffee, wheat, and rice. These plants were new to the native people and animals, so some adjustment was required. 2. Explain the effects the altering of the environment had on various groups in the colonial period. Think native people and European colonizers (farming practices) The effects of altering the environment were substantial for Native Americans in the colonial period. There were a considerate amount of changes, some of them proving to be quite favorable, such as the new addition of horses, firearms and the introduction of trade. However, not all changes were beneficial, many were rather malicious. One of the major negative effects was fatal diseases brought to theShow MoreRelatedHuman Involvement Of Plastic Pollution1518 Words   |  7 Pagespollution is a huge threat to all marine life and its environment. Marine environment, health, and biodiversity are being negatively impacted due to human involvement of plastic pollution. In order to decrease this large pandemic, strict laws must be applied within the use of plastic all over the globe. 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Almost everything in our ever changing worldRead More The Impact of Invasive Species on Ecosystems Essay2985 Words   |  12 Pagesforest to natural causes like a fire or a flood.   In recent times, the introduction and spread of invasive species has transformed native communities rapidly and, in some cases, created irreversible damages.   In the Earth’s history, changes have often occurred in the ecosystems.   For example, glaciers and the retreat of glaciers cause wide-spread changes.   However, although change is a constant in ecosystems, animals and habitats often cannot adapt to the rapid alterations of non-natural stressesRead MoreCarl Sauer s Notion Of A Cultural Landscape And Why Is It Useful For Understanding The World?1481 Words   |  6 Pagesscholars of the 20th century theorized that the defining char acteristics of a â€Å"cultural landscape† differed from those of his predecessors. His findings, while contradictory to some of the most respected academics of his time, helped create an entirely new way of thinking within the discipline (Sauer 1925). However, the influence of Sauer’s work extended well beyond the confines of any one discipline. He helped establish landscape studies in cultural geography and strongly advocated for a â€Å"responsibleRead MoreCancer Prevention Through Macrobiotics3900 Words   |  16 PagesAs of late, Americans are gaining awareness about the importance of a diet that is more nutritious than meat and potatoes. This is partly due to highly publicized information on foods that claim to be beneficial to our overall health. Articles and news reports let us know about the most current study on diet and how it relates to athletic ability, mental acuity and general well-being. Another area that has received much attention is how diet is con nected to disease prevention. 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Stratospheric ozone depletion due to air pollution has long been recognized as a threat to human health as well as to the Earths ecosystemsRead MoreEssay on Silent Spring - Rachel Carson30092 Words   |  121 Pages59 Historical Context.......................................................................................................61 The Rise of Synthetic Pesticides .........................................................................61 Science, Technology, and Nature.......................................................................61 Critical Overview........................................................................................................63 Criticism .........................Read MoreEssay about Globalization and Infectious Disease3704 Words   |  15 Pagesâ€Å"The world is a global village†, is a metaphor that was coined by the Canad ian scholar Marshall McLuhan to describe the perceived experience of a smaller world resulting from the effects of modern technology, faster communication and improved transportation, despite geographical boundaries (1). 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The Writer and Audience The Connection that Should Never End

The Jersey Shore, The Bachelor, Keeping Up with the Kardashians, and The Girls Next Door are just a few of the hundreds of Reality Television shows that are on today and have pushed the classic Brady Bunch family style sitcom aside. According to a study performed by the University of Michigan Health System, an average of children ages 2-5 spend 32 hours a week in front of a TV—watching television and children ages 6-11 spend about 28 hours a week in front of the TV. A majority of shows that dominate the airwaves today are Reality Television shows that can easily influence the young children and teens of society. In â€Å"Reality Television - Educational or a Waste of Time?† Marvin Pirila discusses the false realism Reality Television conveys†¦show more content†¦The use of common known examples that would be relatable and apply to his audience shows the author took the time to adapt and consider his reader. When also looking at the examples the viewers can infe r that the author has prior knowledge on the subject and took time to research his topic, so he could portray his views correctly. Marvin Pirila really exercises a large amount of the essay in Pathos, the emotional force and feeling appeals, by pulling on the sentiment of his audience, especially if the reader is a concerned parent, by using lower emotions such as revenge, greed, and selfishness that are brought out in people and shown on reality shows. This emotion is brought through when Pirila talks about how reality shows are nothing more than man vs. man who will lie, cheat, manipulate, become deceitful, and steal to get their hands on the glorified prize. Marvin also works with other lower emotions like humility. 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Miss Persuasive Essay Example For Students

Miss Persuasive Essay The English ColoniesDuring the 17th century, Europeans had unquestionably come to North America to stay, a fact that signaled major changes for the people of both hemispheres. At first, the English sought to benefit from the New Found land by trading across the continents, but later many English people decided to migrate to North America. Unlike other Europeans, the English transferred their society and politics to their new environment. The New England colonies and the Chesapeake colonies were both English colonies but each had different factors that influenced them. Around 1606, a large population boom followed by high inflation and a fall in real wages motivated men and women to migrate to the New Found land. Merchants and wealthy gentry, who were interested in gaining great profits by finding precious metals and opening new trade routes, formed the Virginia Company which was to become the Chesapeake colonies. On the other hand, men and women migrated to New England mostly for religious purposes. We will write a custom essay on Miss Persuasive specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now The climate in New England was very cold and the soil was infertile unlike the climate in Chesapeake were the regions wide rivers, climate and soil were very fruitful. Hence agriculture was an essential and successful trade in the Chesapeake where tobacco and sugar were the major products. While immigrants rushed to New England looking for freedom of religion, men and women migrated from a small landscape apparently over populated island to Chesapeake, a large, land-rich content. Puritans organized the New England colonies in hope of finding a place where they could practice their religion. Except for the few Catholics who moved to Maryland, immigrants to Chesapeake seem to have been little affected by religious motives. Puritan congregations quickly became key institutions in colonial New England, whereas neither the Church of England nor Roman Catholicism had much impact on the settlers or the early development of the Chesapeake colonies. The New England colonies method for distributing land, helped to further the communal idea unlike the Chesapeake colonies where individuals acquired head rights and sited their farms separately, in Massachusetts groups of men applied together to the General Court for grants of land on which to establish towns. The men then receiving these grants decided how to distribute it. Thus, the New England settlements tended to be more compact than those of the Chesapeake. Due to socioeconomic conditions in the Chesapeake colonies, there was a predominance of males which meant that many males remained single and lived in pairs and females often remarried more than once. Thus Chesapeake families were few, small and short lived. Families in New England continuously and immediately reproduced itself because people immigrated in family groups and sometimes accompanied by relatives and friends. Furthermore, lacking such diseases as malaria, New England was much healthier than Chesapeake which meant people had a longer life expectancy. While Chesapeake population patterns gave rise to families that were few in umber, small size and transitory, the demographic characteristics of New England made families there numerous, large and long lived.In New England, church and state were intertwined to a greater extent that they were in Chesapeake. Although Puritans came to New England seeking freedom to worship as they pleased, they refused to award that freedom to others. Even similar offences were considered differently among colonies. Men and women, who were homosexual, were hanged in both colonies but such executions were far more common in New England than they were in Chesapeake even though mens behavior in the two regions would have probably been similar. New England and Chesapeake differed in the sex ratio and age range of their immigrant populations, in the nature of their developing economies, in their settlements patterns, and in the impact of religious beliefs on their settlers lives.